Humans developed from primates — family living things — and, through long evolutions, finally broke away from the primate habitat and entered civilization. The more humans develop, the deeper the distance between humans and the primate animal world. In the long-term social life of human beings, humans gradually develop a sense of goodness; that is, humans treat other human beings with biological attributes as their own kind. Human beings finally have a sense of kindness based on “kind”, and a compassionate heart for the same kind. This human heart is the basis of human rights.

 

The ideas of humanity and human rights are all derived from this human heart. This development of the human heart is a manifestation and symbol of the great progress of human civilization. This development of the human heart is a manifestation and symbol of the great progress of human civilization. Human rights are rights that human beings must enjoy according to their natural attributes and social nature. Human rights are rights that everyone has or should have.

 

Along with the development of society, human rights are increasingly being noticed by people around the world. Freedom, equality, opposition to discrimination, and the protection of one’s own interests from misconduct have become the basic demands of society. However, differences between Eastern and Western views on human rights have led to misunderstandings in Western understandings of respect and protection of human rights and in China’s concept of human rights.

 

As the theoretical basis of the human rights discourse system from the Eastern perspective, the connotations of human rights theory from the Eastern perspective is essential for understanding development starting from the root of human rights based on the Eastern perspective and establishing a system of human rights discourse departing from the Eastern perspective.

 

Although the East people rarely mention “human rights,” this does not mean that the East does not have a concept of human rights. It is precisely because the Eastern perspective on human rights is inherent in the concept of economic and social development, namely on the basis and purpose of human liberation. The whole liberation of the human being is the essence of human rights.

 

The so-called Western theory of human rights is only a specific product of the concept of human rights in a certain situation of time and space and cannot represent a universal concept in the understanding of human rights issues by all mankind. In fact, Eastern scholars have always taken human rights issues seriously, and their original intention in thinking and fighting was to win freedom, equality, happiness, and dignity for all mankind. The human liberation emphasized by Eastern and Chinese scholars is, in essence, an expression of the concept of human rights.

 

Western human rights theory bases its understanding on the “natural human rights” theory. Meanwhile, the Eastern theory of human rights was formed by reflecting on and criticizing the theory of natural human rights and its practices. Therefore, both perspectives contain a basic difference. The most essential and important difference between human rights theories sourced from Eastern and Western perspectives lies in how to interpret the image of the human being as a subject of human rights, that is, the question of human nature.

 

Western human rights theory abstractly understands human beings as “isolated individuals,” thus establishing egoism in private life as universal humanity, understanding human rights from the perspective of personal life and self-interest, and social coexistence as a means of meeting the needs of personal life. This perspective assumes that man can live alone freely.

 

The concept of human rights according to Western concepts ignores the objective fact that humans live in a social environment and always require interconnectedness between humans as well as between humans and the universe. Egocentric and irresponsible freedom became inherent values in Western human rights concepts. So that in practice, human beings based on the Western concept can bearbitrary and easily used as justification for arguments.

 

On the other hand, the true perspectives on human rights adopted by Eastern and Chinese scholars are based on historical materialism, always departing from concrete economic and social foundations to understand the essence of human beings and human rights, to highlight human reality and sociality, and to treat human beings as “the part of all social relations” and as “realistic individuals” living in certain social relationships. The specific economic and social conditions and social relations in which human beings live are diverse and constantly changing, and human rights must also be concrete and pluralistic, not only as a means to satisfy the needs of personal life.

 

At the same time, it emphasizes human sociality, not to use the social collective to deny individual values and self-interest but to emphasize that individuals have social membership and community life in addition to their personal identity and personal life. Human rights should care about collective interests and realize the organic unity of personal and community life. Human responsibility is also an inherent part of human rights.

 

The human rights emphasized by Western scholars are just about property rights and political rights, and these can be classified as “negative rights,” which require the state government to protect them in the form of “non-interference.” This concept simplifies the essential meaning of human rights, placing them only on the surface. Meanwhile, Eastern and Chinese scholars believe that living people are in real economic and social conditions, and the realization of human development and human rights is based on the stage of economic and social development.

 

Eastern concept of human rights requires the state to intervene in the process of economic and social development with a proactive attitude, promote the full and balanced development of all social spheres through various means, continuously improve people’s livelihoods and welfare with adequate public services, and create various favorable conditions for human development holistically.

 

Western human rights theory and practice are only a stage in the whole history of human rights development. It needs to further develop the ontology of human rights towards the goal of “human liberation.” Human rights theory from the Eastern perspective transcends the limitations of Western human rights theory, complements the causes of modern Western human rights theories that fail fully to realize human rights concerns, and also has a direct impact on the practice of protecting human rights in the contemporary world. Human responsibility should be inherent in human rights. Humans cannot live alone on earth. Human rights and human responsibility are true human rights concerns.

 

In practice, the Western concept of human rights is actually implemented by the West as an argument for justification in executing several practices of military warfare, imposing military sanctions, and imposing economic embargoes. Armed military operations are activities that involve killing each other. In addition to resulting in human deaths, armed military operations also bring suffering and poverty, damaging the economic life and civilization of human beings. Isn’t this the most essential violation of human rights that is depriving other human beings of their right to life?

 

Human suffering and deaths as result of the U.S. army invasions in the Middle East are concrete facts of how the West executes a double standard for human rights. This extremely fatal paradox has never been seriously criticized, let alone opposed, by the world community. These Western human rights are taught by hegemonic ways around the world through Western-funded NGOs to eliminate anyone who is not submissive and obedient to Western command.

 

Human rights and democracy are also used by the U.S. as arguments for the intervention of other countries, especially developing and poor countries, to always adhere to the dominative interests of the U.S. Western arbitrary actions under the pretext of human rights are also seen in the judgment of a country in which the country’s government chooses to disobey in order to serve the dominative interests of the political economy of the U.S. and its allies.

 

The country would be referred to as a country with an authoritarian system of government, and therefore the government of that country should be imposed on military sanction or economic embargoes for violating human rights. In addition to the Middle East region, the double standard of the U.S. and its allies in implementing human rights is also evident in their commitment to imposing sanctions and embargoes on the governments of Cuba and North Korea.

 

 

China’s substantive human rights can be abstracted from people-based thinking and are a legacy of ancient Chinese philosophers’ thought. Mencius’s philosophical thinking was people-oriented and rejuvenated by the Chinese government to date about “building a political party for the public and ruling for the people.” The modern Chinese government not only has great similarities with ancient Chinese philosophers but has always been consistent in implementing and rejuvenating the principles of ancient Chinese philosophers by emphasizing the fundamental position of the people in the government of the state and society.

 

Mencius said that if the “people” are put first, the world can be unified for the benefit of the people. National governance is guided by the welfare of the people and aims at it, and the country’s development can be stable and long-term. Mencius’s thought may have its historical limitations, but in contemporary China, the meaning of “benevolent rule” has been comprehensively sublimated. China, as a country that is considered a violation of human rights by the U.S., is in fact a country that consistently exercises human rights. The modern Chinese government places the people as the basis and goal of development.

 

Without mentioning human rights, the Chinese government fulfills the fundamental essence of human rights, namely the right to life (the same as the right to subsistence). The Chinese government continues to tightly adhere to the idea of development, taking the people as the main body and center, continuing to improve the development of the working people in all aspects, and making prosperity for the Chinese people and the people of partner countries.

 

China has achieved its goal of poverty reduction in the new era as scheduled at the end of 2020, and there are many lessons that the world can draw from China’s experience. Under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, China accomplished the arduous task of eradicating absolute poverty by 2020, achieving the poverty reduction goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (10 years ahead of schedule), and lifting nearly 100 million poor people out of poverty, making important contributions to regional and global poverty reduction. Lifting people out of poverty and backwardness is a major achievement and a tangible manifestation of the fulfillment of human rights. The ideal of fulfilling human rights has been inherently a goal especially in the basic principles in Chinese government policies.

 

The eradication of poverty is a common aspiration of mankind and is a concrete manifestation of the realization of human rights because all human beings have the right to live a prosperous life. Moreover, poverty is a structural problem in developing and underdeveloped countries stemming from economic dependence on the West since the Second World War. China, in addition to successfully eradicating domestic poverty, also greatly contributed to poverty eradication efforts in other countries. In 2016, China, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar jointly launched the “East Asia Poverty Reduction Demonstration Cooperation Technical Assistance Projects”.1

 

Besides, together with partner countries, China encouraged the establishment of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA CECA) to study and exchange poverty alleviation models and introduce Chinese poverty alleviation practices, experiences, and achievements, with the support of the Asian Regional Cooperation Special Fund Project of the Ministry of Finance and the guidance of the CICA Secretariat and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, the Agricultural Information Institute, and the Overseas Agricultural Research Center of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.

 

In October 2021, representatives of the 14 CICA member countries and several African countries attended the meeting to discuss the enlightenment and reference of China’s industrial poverty alleviation experience towards global poverty governance and CICA countries, boost cooperation in poverty reduction and development in the spirit of mutual respect and mutual learning, and discuss and modernize the world of sustainable agricultural development in Asia and even the world.2

 

China’s goals and strenuous efforts in realizing this goal show that China is a country that puts the people in the “position of the people” and embodies the true value of a government that values human rights very much. China’s efforts to eradicate domestic, regional, and global poverty are China’s efforts to carry out its human responsibilities and, at the same time, fulfill essential human rights.

 

In the Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, there are three important concepts: “human-centered”, “better life of society”, and “community with a common future for mankind.” These concepts have strong roots in human rights discourse and should be supported as core discourses for establishing a system of human rights discourse based on Eastern characteristics for the new era.

 

“Human-centered” is the essence of human rights; “man are the creators of history”, and the word “man” emphasizes the organic unity of the individual and the collective, suggesting that the human being who is the subject of human rights must be an individual with a public spirit. “The good life of the people” and “comprehensive

 

human development” are in line with the spiritual spirit and the pursuit of values. To meet the people’s needs for a better life is to meet “the ever-increasing needs of the people in economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological aspects” and achieve “comprehensive human development and comprehensive social progress”.

 

The “people liberation” assiduously pursued by Eastern human rights theory points to the emancipation and overarching development of all mankind. The concept of “communities with a shared future for mankind” examines international human rights objectives from the perspective of “all mankind”, calls for the principles of peace, development, cooperation, and mutually beneficial results, reflects the good lives of the people of one country with the good lives of the people of all countries, and provides important Chinese solutions to realize the common values of peace, development, justice, democracy, and freedom for all mankind.

 

Human rights do not only include civil rights. The implementation of natural human rights that are limited only to civil and political rights oversimplifies the meaning of human rights itself. The fulfillment of comprehensive human rights, which also include economic rights, should be an important discourse in international relations. Inclusive and peaceful economic development for all human beings is the most essential of human rights. Without laying the foundation of the principle that the purpose of man is to defend life, then human rights become only an empty issue for which there is no accountability. Since the first condition to realizing true human rights is to maintain people life itself.

 

(Veronika Saraswati, PH. D, Centre for Strategic and International Studies China Study Unit)